Lost to The West - Byzantium

Lost to The West

Architecture

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nea_Ekklesia
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galata_Tower
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_Saint_John_the_Baptist,_Kerch
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_Saint_Demetrius_of_Thessaloniki,_Veliko_Tarnovo
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultanahmet_Square
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Chora
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysotriklinos
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_St._Polyeuctus
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Palace_of_Constantinople
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_architecture
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_the_Holy_Apostles

Museums

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istanbul_Archaeology_Museums

Related Topics

• crusaders
• maps
• paganism vs. Christianity
• local geography
• question of succession
• Dark Ages
• Asia Minor
• Anatolia
• Greek culture
• remaininig buildings / achitecture
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_winter_of_536
• Church of the Holy Sepulchre and Constantine
• walls of Constantinople
• Copts
• Bulgars
• Frankish Kingdom
• Charles “The Hammer” Martel
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tours
• Charles The Great / Charlemagne
• marble ruins of Rome empire
• relation between king and church (Charlemagne and Pope Leo)
• Church of Holy Apostles - tombs
• slave trading
• Thrace
• eastern vs. western culture and education
• Hellopont
• Great Palace
• Golden Horn
• Armenia
• Pechenegs
• role of church in Bizantium
• Hagia Sophia architectue and mosaics
• Greek fire
• Holy Mandylion
• University of Contantinople
• Aleppo
• Hippodrome
• Constantine’s tomb in the Church of the Holy Apostles
• feodalism
• Medieval Europe
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krak_des_Chevaliers
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saladin
• problem of succession

General Note

• Diocletian
• Constantine
• conversion to Christianity
• foundation of Constantinople / Nova Roma
• Nicaea
• dispute with Arius
• Visigoths and Ostrogoths
• Barbarians
• Theodosius vs. paganism
• Stilicho and Alaric
• moving capital from Rome to Ravenna
• Atilla
• The Fall of Rome
• sacks of Rome
• Vandal Kingdom of North Africa
• Basiliscus
• reconquest of West
• Odoacer
• Justinian
• Theodora
• Vandal King of Afrika
• Nika!
• Hagia Sophia
• Vandals downfall
• Belisarius - conquest of North Afrika and Italy
• Dalmatia region
• Belisarius - Rome - Goths
• Pope
• Milan - burned to the ground by Goths
• Antioch
• patriarchs
• Persia
• plague of Justinian
• Chosroes
• Visigothic Spain
• Dark Ages vs. Byzantium
• Heraclius
• Avars
• common culture
• rise of Islam / Arab invasion
• Islam and Persia
• conquest of Egypt by Arabs
• Leo III and iconoclasm
• Cappadocias - secret churches
• Lombards
• Constantine V and Irene
• Irene - restoring icons
• Kruh Khan
• Arabs in Italy
• Theophilius
• Photius(patriach) - Cyril and Methodius
• tension between Pope and patriarch
• Basil the Macedonian
• Leo the Wise
• Romanus Lecapenus
• Leo Phocas
• Curcuas
• Nicephorus Phocas
• John Tzimisces
• Magyars
• Cordova
• Constantine VII and Olga’s convertion to Christianity
• Joseph Bringas
• Crite - return to imperial fold
• The Pale Death of Sacacens
• Basyl II, John Bringas and Nicephorus
• Nicephorus and Svyaloslav
• Manzikert battle
• Theophano, John Tzimisces and Nicephorus
• John Tzimisces and Kyiv Rus
• Fatimids of Egypt
• Basil Lecapenus
• Basil The Bulgar Slayer (Basil II)
• Bardas Sclerus
• Saracens
• Sofia - capital of Bulgaria
• Basil II and Vladimir
• Vladimir’s convertion to Christianity
• Varangian Guard
• Bardas Phocas and Basil II
• Tsar Samuel and Basil II
• 1054 - split on Catholic and Orthodox, Constantine IX, Humbert Hagia Sophia, excommunication
• Seljuk Turks
• weak rules after Basil II
• Manzikerts battle failure - begin of collapse
• Normans in Italy, Robet Guiscard
• lost of Analolia
• burned Chrysopolist by Turks in 1078
• Alexius Compenus
• Normans in Dalmatia
• Durazzo
• Normandy
• Saxon England
• Wiliiam the Conqueror
• Robert Guiscard
• Battle of Hastings
• Alexiums and Venice
• captue of Jerusalem in 1087
• Alexius and Pope Urban II
• Pope Urban II and crusaders
• Peter the Hermit
• The People’s Crusade
• First Crusade
• July 15, 1099 - crusades took Jerusalem
• Bohemond in Antioch
• Second Crusade
• Manuel
• prevent Turks from going into Europe
• Enrico Dandolo
• war between Venice and Byzantium
• Danishmend Turks
• Andronicus the Terrible
• Saladin
• Isaac Angelus
• Alexius III
• Iconium
• Third Crusade
• Frederick Barbarossa
• Richard the Lion-Hearted
• Venice and Byzantium culture
• Fourth Crusade, Venice, Enrico Dandolo
• Alexius IV
• chain in harbor near Constantinople
• Alexius Murtzuphlus
• Golden Gate
• destruction of Constantinople by crusaders
• bronze horses from Hippodrome moved to Saint Mark’s
• Pope Innocent III and news about sacking of Constantinople
• semi-independent kingdoms - Latin Empire, Nicaea, Trebizond, Epirus
• Theodosian column
• Mongol horde in 1242
• Baldwin II
• Michael Palaeologus
• Nicaean army in Constantinople
• Hagia Sophia - mosaic - Christ flanked by Mary and John the Baptist
• The Norman Kingdom of Sicily
• Charles of Anjou
• Pope Gregory X - union between Catholic and Orthodox
• Michael III
• Chora Monastery
• Mongol sack of Bagdad in 1258
• Ottomans
• The Black Death - in Europe and Byzantium
• Bayezid
• Timur the Lame
• Mongols and Ottomans
• Hexamilion wall
• Hundred Years War
• John VIII
• Constantine XI Dragases
• Vlad III / Dracula
• Constanine XII - decree of Union
• Mehmed II
• Urban - cannon maker
• Mermen II and Urban
• Giovanni Giustiniani
• artillery during siege of Constantinople
• Jannisaries
• destruction of Constantinople
• refuges from Byzantium in Europe
• Renaissance
• Orthodox Church
• Age of Discovery

Additional notes (by ChatGPT)

• Diocletian (r. 284-305): Emperor who reformed the Roman Empire, dividing it into two halves, with himself ruling the Eastern half from Nicomedia. He is known for his persecution of Christians and his Edict of Prices, which attempted to stabilize the economy. He abdicated in 305, triggering a civil war that would eventually lead to the rise of Constantine.

• Constantine (r. 306-337): Emperor who converted to Christianity and made it the official religion of the Roman Empire. He is known for his founding of Constantinople in 324, which became the new capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. He also fought against rival claimants to the throne and expanded the borders of the empire.

• Conversion to Christianity: Christianity gradually became the dominant religion of the Roman Empire, with Constantine’s conversion in 312 and the Edict of Milan in 313 allowing for religious tolerance. The Council of Nicaea in 325 was a key moment in the development of Christian doctrine, with the Nicene Creed being established as a statement of faith.

• Foundation of Constantinople / Nova Roma: In 324, Constantine founded the city of Constantinople on the site of the ancient Greek city of Byzantium, making it the new capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. It was a strategically located city with easy access to trade routes and served as a cultural and economic center.

• Nicaea: Site of the Council of Nicaea in 325, which was called by Constantine to resolve disputes over the nature of Jesus and establish a standardized Christian doctrine.

• Dispute with Arius: Arius was a priest who taught that Jesus was not divine but rather a created being. This idea was rejected at the Council of Nicaea and led to the establishment of the Nicene Creed, which affirms the divinity of Jesus.

• Visigoths and Ostrogoths: Germanic tribes that migrated into the Roman Empire in the 4th and 5th centuries. They were initially settled within the empire as foederati (allies) but eventually began to assert their own power and established their own kingdoms.

• Barbarians: A term used by the Romans to describe non-Roman peoples who lived beyond the empire’s borders. As the Roman Empire weakened, these groups began to migrate into Roman territory and establish their own kingdoms.

• Theodosius vs. paganism: Emperor Theodosius I (r. 379-395) was a devout Christian who worked to suppress paganism and establish Christianity as the dominant religion of the empire. He famously ordered the massacre of thousands of civilians in Thessalonica after a riot in 390.

• Stilicho and Alaric: Stilicho was a general of Roman and Vandal descent who served as a powerful regent for the young Emperor Honorius. Alaric was a Visigothic king who led several raids into Italy and sacked Rome in 410.

• Moving capital from Rome to Ravenna: In the late 4th and early 5th centuries, the Western Roman Emperors began to spend more time in Ravenna, which was better fortified and easier to defend than Rome.

• Attila: King of the Huns who led several raids into the Eastern Roman Empire in the 5th century. He was defeated by a coalition of Roman and Germanic forces at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains in 451.

• The Fall of Rome: The Western Roman Empire officially ended in 476, when the last emperor, Romulus Augustus, was deposed by the Germanic general Odoacer.

• Sacks of Rome: Rome was sacked several times in the 5th century by various Germanic tribes, including the Visigoths in 410 and the Vandals in 455. These events marked the decline of the Western Roman Empire and the beginning of the Dark Ages.

• Vandal Kingdom of North Africa: The Vandals established a kingdom in North Africa in the early 5th century and became a major naval power in the Mediterranean. Their control of the region ended with the Byzantine conquest in the 6th century.

• Basiliscus (r. 475-476): Byzantine emperor who attempted to reconquer the Western Roman Empire, but his expedition ended in failure and he was deposed by his own troops.

• Reconquest of West: In the 6th century, the Byzantine Empire under Emperor Justinian I launched a reconquest of the Western Roman Empire, retaking much of Italy and North Africa. The effort was led by the general Belisarius, who was largely successful but ultimately unable to hold onto all of the territory gained.

• Odoacer: Germanic general who deposed the last Western Roman Emperor in 476 and established his own kingdom in Italy. He is considered by many historians to mark the end of the Western Roman Empire.

• Justinian (r. 527-565): Emperor who is known for his efforts to reconquer the Western Roman Empire and his codification of Roman law in the Corpus Juris Civilis. He also oversaw significant building projects, including the construction of the Hagia Sophia.

• Theodora: Empress and wife of Justinian, who played a significant role in Byzantine politics and was known for her advocacy for women’s rights.

• Vandal King of Afrika: The Vandal kingdom in North Africa was eventually conquered by the Byzantines under Belisarius in 533, and the Vandal king, Gelimer, was captured.

• Nika!: A violent uprising that took place in Constantinople in 532, sparked by tensions between rival chariot racing factions. The rebellion was eventually quelled by Justinian, who ordered the execution of thousands of rebels.

• Hagia Sophia: A massive cathedral constructed in Constantinople during the reign of Justinian I. It is considered one of the greatest examples of Byzantine architecture.

• Vandals downfall: The Byzantine reconquest of North Africa in 533 marked the end of the Vandal Kingdom.

• Belisarius - conquest of North Afrika and Italy: Belisarius was a general who served under Justinian and led successful campaigns in North Africa and Italy, reclaiming territory that had been lost to the Vandals and Ostrogoths.

• Dalmatia region: A region along the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea that was contested between the Byzantines and various Germanic tribes.

• Belisarius - Rome - Goths: Belisarius was also involved in campaigns against the Ostrogoths in Italy, leading to the reconquest of Rome in 536.

• Pope: The Pope of Rome was the leader of the Western Christian Church, and was often involved in political and religious disputes with the Byzantine Empire.

• Milan - burned to the ground by Goths: In 539, the city of Milan was captured and burned by the Ostrogoths.

• Antioch: A major city in Syria that was a center of early Christianity. It was captured by the Persians in 540 and suffered significant damage.

• Patriarchs: The leaders of the Eastern Christian Church, who often played a significant role in Byzantine politics and religious affairs.

• Persia: The Sassanid Empire of Persia was a major rival of the Byzantine Empire throughout much of its history, with the two powers engaging in numerous wars and territorial disputes.

• Plague of Justinian: A pandemic that swept through the Byzantine Empire in the 6th century, killing millions of people and causing widespread social and economic disruption.

• Chosroes: Several Sassanid emperors of Persia were named Chosroes, but the most notable was Chosroes II, who reigned from 590 to 628 and was a major rival of the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius.

• Visigothic Spain: After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Visigoths established a kingdom in what is now Spain and Portugal, which lasted from the 5th to the 8th century.

• Dark Ages vs. Byzantium: The term “Dark Ages” is often used to describe the period of European history between the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the High Middle Ages. While much of Europe was experiencing political and cultural fragmentation, the Byzantine Empire continued to flourish.

• Heraclius (r. 610-641): Emperor who is known for his successful campaigns against the Sassanid Empire of Persia, which had been a major rival of the Byzantine Empire. He also oversaw the adoption of Greek as the official language of the Byzantine Empire.

• Avars: A nomadic people from Central Asia who invaded the Byzantine Empire in the 6th century and established a powerful state in what is now Hungary.

• Common culture: The Byzantine Empire was known for its synthesis of Greek and Roman culture, which became a defining characteristic of the Eastern Roman Empire.

• Rise of Islam / Arab invasion: In the 7th century, the Arab armies of Islam rapidly expanded their territory, conquering much of the Byzantine Empire’s eastern provinces and threatening Constantinople itself.

• Islam and Persia: The rise of Islam had a major impact on Persia, which had been a major rival of the Byzantine Empire. Many Persians converted to Islam and the Islamic Caliphate eventually absorbed the Persian Empire.

• Conquest of Egypt by Arabs: In 641, the Arab armies of Islam conquered Egypt from the Byzantine Empire, marking a major turning point in the history of the region.

• Leo III and iconoclasm: Emperor who is known for his attempts to suppress the use of religious icons in the Byzantine Empire, a policy known as iconoclasm. This led to significant religious and political unrest.

• Cappadocias - secret churches: The region of Cappadocia in central Anatolia was home to a large number of Christians who were forced to worship in secret during the period of iconoclasm.

• Lombards: A Germanic tribe that established a kingdom in what is now Italy in the 6th century, which lasted until the 8th century.

• Constantine V and Irene: Constantine V was an iconoclastic emperor who ruled from 741 to 775. His wife, Irene, eventually became empress regnant and restored the use of religious icons.

• Irene - restoring icons: As empress regnant, Irene restored the use of religious icons in the Byzantine Empire, reversing the policies of her iconoclastic predecessors.

• Kruh Khan: A ruler of the Khazars, a nomadic people from Central Asia who played an important role in the history of Eastern Europe and the Caucasus.

• Arabs in Italy: In the 9th century, the Aghlabids, a dynasty of Arab rulers, established a kingdom in Sicily and southern Italy, which posed a threat to Byzantine control of the region.

• Theophilius (r. 829-842): Emperor who was known for his campaigns against the Arab Abbasid Caliphate and his support for the use of icons in the Byzantine Church.

• Photius (patriarch) - Cyril and Methodius: Photius was a patriarch of Constantinople who played a significant role in Byzantine religious affairs, including his involvement in a controversy over the use of the filioque clause in the Nicene Creed. He was also involved in the conversion of the Slavs to Christianity, supporting the work of the missionaries Cyril and Methodius.

• Tension between Pope and patriarch: The relationship between the Pope of Rome and the patriarch of Constantinople was often tense, with the two churches engaged in disputes over theological and political matters.

• Basil the Macedonian (r. 867-886): Emperor who came to power in a coup and oversaw significant military victories against the Arab Abbasid Caliphate.

• Leo the Wise (r. 886-912): Emperor who oversaw significant cultural and artistic achievements in the Byzantine Empire, including the construction of the Nea Ekklesia.

• Romanus Lecapenus (r. 919-944): Emperor who rose to power in a coup and attempted to establish a hereditary dynasty, but was eventually deposed.

• Leo Phocas (r. 886-912): Emperor who was known for his military campaigns against the Bulgars and the Arab Abbasid Caliphate.

• Curcuas: General who served under the emperor Nikephoros II Phokas and is known for his campaigns against the Arabs in Syria.

• Nicephorus Phocas (r. 963-969): Emperor who came to power in a coup and oversaw significant military victories against the Arab Fatimid Caliphate.

• John Tzimisces (r. 969-976): Emperor who was known for his successful campaigns against the Bulgars and the Rus.

• Magyars: A nomadic people from Central Asia who established a powerful state in what is now Hungary, which posed a threat to Byzantine control of the Balkans.

• Cordova: A city in Andalusia, Spain that was the capital of the Umayyad Caliphate of Cordoba, which was a major rival of the Byzantine Empire.

• Constantine VII and Olga’s conversion to Christianity: Constantine VII was a Byzantine emperor who oversaw significant cultural and literary achievements, including the compilation of the De Ceremoniis, a guide to court protocol. Olga was a ruler of Kievan Rus who converted to Christianity, paving the way for the Christianization of Russia.

• Joseph Bringas: Eunuch who served as the chief minister of Emperor Romanos II and played a significant role in Byzantine politics.

• Crite - return to imperial fold: Crite was a Bulgarian ruler who briefly rebelled against Byzantine rule but eventually returned to the imperial fold.

• The Pale Death of Saracens: A plague that swept through the Middle East in the 9th century, causing significant social and economic disruption.

• Basil II, John Bringas and Nicephorus: Basil II was a Byzantine emperor who oversaw significant military victories against the Bulgars and the Rus. John Bringas and Nicephorus were prominent members of his court.

• Nicephorus and Svyaloslav: Nicephorus II Phocas was a Byzantine emperor who engaged in a long-running conflict with Sviatoslav I of Kyivan Rus, resulting in several significant battles and territorial disputes.

• Manzikert battle: The Battle of Manzikert, fought in 1071, was a major military defeat for the Byzantine Empire and marked the beginning of a long period of decline and fragmentation.

• Theophano, John Tzimisces and Nicephorus: Theophano was the wife of the Byzantine Emperor Romanos II and later the lover of the emperor John I Tzimiskes. Nicephorus II Phocas was a rival of John Tzimiskes and was eventually overthrown by him.

• John Tzimisces and Kyiv Rus: John I Tzimiskes was a Byzantine emperor who engaged in a long-running conflict with the rulers of Kyivan Rus, resulting in several significant battles and territorial disputes.

• Fatimids of Egypt: The Fatimid Caliphate of Egypt was a major rival of the Byzantine Empire and played a significant role in Mediterranean politics and trade.

• Basil Lecapenus: Basil I was a Byzantine emperor who came to power in a coup and oversaw significant military victories against the Arab Abbasid Caliphate.

• Basil The Bulgar Slayer (Basil II): Basil II was a Byzantine emperor who oversaw significant military victories against the Bulgars, earning him the nickname “Bulgar Slayer.” He also oversaw significant cultural and artistic achievements in the Byzantine Empire.

• Bardas Sclerus: Bardas Skleros was a Byzantine general who rebelled against Emperor Basil II but was eventually defeated and exiled.

• Saracens: A term used to refer to Arab and Muslim peoples in the Middle Ages, who were a major rival of the Byzantine Empire.

• Sofia - capital of Bulgaria: Sofia is the modern capital of Bulgaria, but it was also a significant city in the medieval Bulgarian Empire, which was a major rival of the Byzantine Empire.

• Basil II and Vladimir: Basil II and Vladimir I of Kyivan Rus engaged in a significant political and military alliance, which led to the conversion of the Rus to Christianity.

• Vladimir’s conversion to Christianity: Vladimir I of Kyivan Rus is credited with the conversion of the Rus to Christianity, which had significant cultural and political consequences.

• Varangian Guard: The Varangian Guard was a unit of the Byzantine Army that was composed of Scandinavian warriors. They played a significant role in Byzantine politics and military affairs.

• Bardas Phocas and Basil II: Bardas Phocas was a Byzantine general who rebelled against Emperor Basil II but was eventually defeated and blinded.

• Tsar Samuel and Basil II: Tsar Samuel was a ruler of the Bulgarian Empire who engaged in a long-running conflict with Emperor Basil II of Byzantium, resulting in several significant battles and territorial disputes.

• 1054 - split on Catholic and Orthodox, Constantine IX, Humbert Hagia Sophia, excommunication: In 1054, a schism occurred between the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church, resulting in the separation of the two churches. This was triggered in part by a dispute between the Patriarch of Constantinople and the Pope over theological and political matters.

• Seljuk Turks: The Seljuk Turks were a nomadic people from Central Asia who established a powerful empire in the Middle East and Asia Minor, posing a significant threat to the Byzantine Empire.

• Weak rules after Basil II: Following the death of Emperor Basil II, the Byzantine Empire was plagued by a series of weak and ineffective rulers, which contributed to the empire’s decline and fragmentation.

• Manzikert battle failure - begin of collapse: The Battle of Manzikert, fought in 1071, was a major military defeat for the Byzantine Empire and marked the beginning of a long period of decline and fragmentation.

• Normans in Italy, Robert Guiscard: The Normans, a group of Viking descendants, established a powerful kingdom in southern Italy, led by the military genius Robert Guiscard, which posed a significant threat to Byzantine control of the region.

• Lost of Anatolia: The Byzantine Empire lost control of much of Anatolia, its heartland and the breadbasket of the empire, to the Seljuk Turks in the 11th century, contributing to the empire’s decline.

• Burned Chrysopolis by Turks in 1078: In 1078, the Turkish Seljuk Sultan Alp Arslan burned the Byzantine city of Chrysopolis, which was located across the Bosporus from Constantinople, and threatened the city itself.

• Alexius Comnenus: Alexius I Comnenus was a Byzantine emperor who came to power in a coup and oversaw significant military victories against the Normans and the Seljuk Turks. He also oversaw significant cultural and artistic achievements in the Byzantine Empire.

• Normans in Dalmatia, Durazzo: The Normans established a significant presence in Dalmatia, a region of the Adriatic coast that was contested between the Byzantine Empire and various rival powers, including the Normans. The city of Durazzo was a major center of conflict.

• Normandy, Saxon England, William the Conqueror: The Norman conquest of England in 1066, led by William the Conqueror, marked a significant moment in medieval European history and had significant political, cultural, and linguistic consequences.

• Battle of Hastings: The Battle of Hastings, fought in 1066, marked the Norman conquest of England, led by William the Conqueror, and had significant political, cultural, and linguistic consequences.

• Alexius and Venice: Alexius I Comnenus sought an alliance with the Republic of Venice, offering trading privileges and military aid in exchange for naval support and assistance against the Normans and the Seljuk Turks.

• Capture of Jerusalem in 1087: In 1087, the Byzantine Empire recaptured Jerusalem from the Seljuk Turks, marking a significant victory in the struggle for control of the Holy Land.

• Alexius and Pope Urban II: Alexius I Comnenus sought the assistance of Pope Urban II in securing an alliance with the West against the Normans and the Seljuk Turks.

• Pope Urban II and crusaders: Pope Urban II called for a crusade to liberate the Holy Land from Muslim control, which led to the First Crusade and a series of subsequent crusades.

• Peter the Hermit: Peter the Hermit was a French monk who played a significant role in promoting the idea of a crusade to the Holy Land, leading the so-called “People’s Crusade.”

• The People’s Crusade: The People’s Crusade was a largely unorganized and poorly equipped movement of common people who set out for the Holy Land in response to the call for a crusade.

• First Crusade: The First Crusade, launched in 1096, resulted in the capture of Jerusalem in 1099 and the establishment of a Christian Kingdom in the Holy Land.

• July 15, 1099 - crusaders took Jerusalem: On July 15, 1099, the Christian crusaders captured Jerusalem from Muslim control, marking a significant victory in the struggle for control of the Holy Land.

• Bohemond in Antioch: Bohemond of Taranto was a Norman leader who established the Principality of Antioch, a Christian state in northern Syria, after the First Crusade.

• Second Crusade: The Second Crusade, launched in 1147, was a largely unsuccessful attempt to recapture the city of Edessa from Muslim control.

• Manuel: Manuel I Comnenus was a Byzantine emperor who oversaw significant cultural and artistic achievements in the Byzantine Empire, as well as significant military victories against the Normans and the Seljuk Turks.

• Prevent Turks from going into Europe: The Byzantine Empire sought to prevent the Seljuk Turks from expanding into Europe and launched a series of military campaigns to push back against their advances.

• Enrico Dandolo: Enrico Dandolo was the Doge of Venice who played a significant role in the Fourth Crusade, which ultimately resulted in the sacking of Constantinople.

• War between Venice and Byzantium: Venice and the Byzantine Empire were rivals in the Eastern Mediterranean, competing for control of trade routes and political influence.

• Danishmend Turks: The Danishmend Turks were a Turkic dynasty that controlled territory in central Anatolia and posed a significant threat to Byzantine control of the region.

• Andronicus the Terrible: Andronicus I Comnenus, also known as “the Terrible,” was a Byzantine emperor who engaged in a series of brutal purges and repressions, contributing to the decline and fragmentation of the Byzantine Empire.

• Robert Guiscard: Robert Guiscard was a Norman leader who established the Duchy of Apulia and Calabria, a powerful Norman state in southern Italy, and posed a significant threat to Byzantine control of the region.

• Saladin: Saladin was a Muslim military leader who led the forces that recaptured Jerusalem from the Christian crusaders during the 12th century.

• Isaac Angelus: Isaac II Angelus was a Byzantine emperor who faced significant challenges during his reign, including the Fourth Crusade and a rebellion led by his own brother.

• Alexius III: Alexius III Angelus was a Byzantine emperor who came to power after his brother Isaac II was overthrown and blinded, but was ultimately deposed and imprisoned by his own nephew.

• Iconium: Iconium, also known as Konya, was a city in central Anatolia that played a significant role in the struggles between the Byzantine Empire and the Seljuk Turks during the 12th century.

• Third Crusade: The Third Crusade, launched in 1189, was a largely unsuccessful attempt by Christian forces to retake Jerusalem from Muslim control, led by prominent figures such as Richard the Lionhearted and Frederick Barbarossa.

• Frederick Barbarossa: Frederick Barbarossa was a Holy Roman Emperor who played a significant role in the Third Crusade, but died before the crusade reached its conclusion.

• Richard the Lion-Hearted: Richard the Lionhearted was a king of England who played a significant role in the Third Crusade, but ultimately failed to recapture Jerusalem from Muslim control.

• Venice and Byzantium culture: Venice and the Byzantine Empire had close cultural ties and shared artistic and intellectual traditions, particularly in the fields of architecture, art, and literature.

• Fourth Crusade, Venice, Enrico Dandolo: The Fourth Crusade was a controversial crusade that was diverted from its intended target of Egypt and instead led to the sacking of Constantinople, in part due to the influence of Venice and its Doge, Enrico Dandolo.

• Alexius IV: Alexius IV Angelus was a claimant to the Byzantine throne who promised the crusaders significant financial and military assistance in exchange for their support, but was ultimately overthrown and executed.

• Chain in harbor near Constantinople: The chain in the harbor near Constantinople was a defensive measure implemented by the Byzantine Empire to prevent enemy ships from entering the city’s harbor.

• Alexius Murtzuphlus: Alexius V Murtzuphlus was a Byzantine emperor who came to power during the Fourth Crusade, but was ultimately overthrown and executed.

• Golden Gate: The Golden Gate was a grand entrance to the city of Constantinople, named for its elaborate decoration and golden hues.

• Destruction of Constantinople by crusaders: The Fourth Crusade ultimately led to the sacking and destruction of Constantinople, which had significant consequences for the Byzantine Empire and the broader region.

• Bronze horses from Hippodrome moved to Saint Mark’s: Following the Fourth Crusade, the famous bronze horses from the Hippodrome in Constantinople were taken by the crusaders and eventually ended up in Venice, where they were installed on the facade of the Basilica of Saint Mark.

• Pope Innocent III and news about sacking of Constantinople: Pope Innocent III was the pope at the time of the Fourth Crusade and was reportedly devastated upon hearing news of the sacking of Constantinople.

• Semi-independent kingdoms - Latin Empire, Nicaea, Trebizond, Epirus: Following the Fourth Crusade, the Byzantine Empire was fragmented into several semi-independent kingdoms, including the Latin Empire, the Empire of Nicaea, the Empire of Trebizond, and the Despotate of Epirus.

• Theodosian column: The Theodosian column was a monument in Constantinople that celebrated the accomplishments of the Emperor

• Mongol horde in 1242: In 1242, a Mongol army under the command of Batu Khan invaded the Byzantine Empire and defeated a combined force of Byzantine and Bulgarian troops in the Battle of Adrianople.

• Baldwin II: Baldwin II was the last Latin Emperor of Constantinople, who ruled from 1228 to 1261, when he was deposed and imprisoned by the Byzantine Empire.

• Michael Palaeologus: Michael VIII Palaeologus was a Byzantine emperor who came to power after overthrowing the Latin Empire and reestablishing Byzantine rule over Constantinople.

• Nicaean army in Constantinople: In 1261, a Nicaean army led by Alexios Strategopoulos captured Constantinople and restored Byzantine control over the city.

• Hagia Sophia - mosaic - Christ flanked by Mary and John the Baptist: In the mid-14th century, a new mosaic was installed in the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople depicting Christ flanked by the Virgin Mary and John the Baptist.

• The Norman Kingdom of Sicily: The Norman Kingdom of Sicily was a state that existed in southern Italy and Sicily from the 11th to the 13th century, and was known for its cultural and religious diversity.

• Charles of Anjou: Charles of Anjou was a French nobleman who played a significant role in the politics and warfare of southern Italy during the 13th century.

• Pope Gregory X - union between Catholic and Orthodox: In 1274, Pope Gregory X convened the Council of Lyon, which attempted to reconcile the Catholic and Orthodox Churches and promote greater unity between the two faiths.

• Michael III: Michael III of Byzantium was a Byzantine emperor who ruled from 842 to 867, and was known for his patronage of the arts and his military campaigns against the Arabs.

• Chora Monastery: The Chora Monastery, located in Constantinople, was known for its impressive mosaics and frescoes depicting scenes from the life of Christ and the Virgin Mary.

• Mongol sack of Bagdad in 1258: In 1258, a Mongol army under the command of Hulagu Khan sacked the city of Baghdad, which marked the end of the Abbasid Caliphate and had significant consequences for the wider Islamic world.

• Ottomans: The Ottoman Empire was a powerful state that emerged in Anatolia in the late 13th century and went on to conquer much of southeastern Europe, western Asia, and northern Africa.

• The Black Death - in Europe and Byzantium: The Black Death, a devastating plague caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, swept across Europe and the Byzantine Empire in the mid-14th century, causing widespread death and social upheaval.

• Bayezid: Bayezid I was an Ottoman Sultan who ruled from 1389 to 1402, and was known for his military campaigns against the Byzantine Empire and other neighboring states.

• Timur the Lame: Timur, also known as Tamerlane, was a Turco-Mongol conqueror who founded the Timurid Empire in Central Asia and launched a series of devastating military campaigns against the Ottoman Empire and other states.

• Mongols and Ottomans: The Mongol Empire and the Ottoman Empire were two major powers that emerged in the medieval period and had significant interactions, including military campaigns and diplomatic relations.

• Hexamilion wall: The Hexamilion wall was a defensive fortification built by the Byzantine Empire in the 5th century AD to protect the Isthmus of Corinth, and was later used in the defense against Ottoman attacks.

• Hundred Years War: The Hundred Years War was a series of conflicts between England and France from 1337 to 1453, and had significant political and economic repercussions throughout Europe.

• John VIII: John VIII Palaeologus was a Byzantine emperor who ruled from 1425 to 1448, and was known for his efforts to secure alliances with European powers and defend the Byzantine Empire against Ottoman attacks.

• Constantine XI Dragases: Constantine XI Dragases was the last Byzantine emperor, who ruled from 1449 to 1453 and died during the fall of Constantinople.

• Vlad III / Dracula: Vlad III, also known as Vlad the Impaler, was a prince of Wallachia who fought against Ottoman expansion and became the inspiration for the fictional character Dracula.

• Constanine XII - decree of Union: Constantine XII Dragases issued the decree of Union in 1452, which attempted to reconcile the Catholic and Orthodox Churches and promote greater unity between the two faiths.

• Mehmed II: Mehmed II, also known as Mehmed the Conqueror, was an Ottoman Sultan who ruled from 1451 to 1481 and conquered Constantinople in 1453, ending the Byzantine Empire.

• Urban - cannon maker: Urban was a Hungarian cannon maker who worked for the Ottoman Empire and played a key role in the siege of Constantinople in 1453.

• Mermen II and Urban: Mehmed II and Urban worked together during the siege of Constantinople, with Urban helping to design and build the cannons used by the Ottomans.

• Giovanni Giustiniani: Giovanni Giustiniani was a Venetian soldier who fought in the defense of Constantinople during the siege of 1453.

• artillery during siege of Constantinople: The Ottomans used a variety of advanced artillery techniques during the siege of Constantinople, including the use of cannons and mortars.

• Jannisaries: The Janissaries were a elite infantry unit of the Ottoman Empire that was composed of Christian boys who were conscripted and trained in the Ottoman military.

• destruction of Constantinople: The fall of Constantinople in 1453 marked the end of the Byzantine Empire and had significant repercussions for the wider world, including the spread of Byzantine refugees and cultural influences.

• refuges from Byzantium in Europe: Following the fall of Constantinople, many Byzantine refugees fled to other parts of Europe and brought with them their culture, knowledge, and artistic traditions.

• Renaissance: The Renaissance was a period of cultural, intellectual, and artistic flourishing that began in Italy in the 14th century and had significant influence throughout Europe.

• Orthodox Church: The Orthodox Church is one of the oldest Christian denominations, with roots in the Eastern Roman Empire and a distinctive theological and liturgical tradition.

• The Age of Discovery was a period of European exploration and expansion that began in the 15th century and continued through the 17th century. During this time, European powers such as Spain, Portugal, England, and France sent explorers and navigators to discover new territories, establish trade routes, and spread their influence throughout the world.